<= /span>

THE POLAR SHEAF=

The previo= us chapter, The Electron, presented a creditable new model representing the structure and action surrounding the entity we call the electron. Centrepiece to the model was the c= oncept of an electro-dynamic field (EDF). This structure is spherical and surrounds the electron extending for some distance. The field is composed (literally)= of lines. All lines face the direction of electron travel and are made up of dipole units each containing a juxtapositioned set of two charges within them. While these units are r= ound they can be regarded as having ‘ends’ in relation to the charge. These ends are attached positive to negative in a chain like manner and the= se make up the actual lines. This chapter seeks to introduce the idea of the p= olar sheaf and in effect introduce the concept of lines within space and the act= ions and outcomes they experience through their short lives.

Now the fi= eld intensity generated by a moving electron is:

I =3D k.q.v.s^-2 where=

k is a constant,

q is the charge of the electron,

v is the speed of the electron and

s is the distance to the electron.

Such a fie= ld is an electromotive force and is positioned along the parallel direction of the moving electron. As mentioned before the field is made up of lines and these lines are made up of units t= hat have charges attached end to end along the lines. In particular the negative ends of= the units making up these lines of force lead the direction of the lines while = the positive charges bring up the rear.

Given that= the moving electron generates this field, a field represented by lines, all them parallel to the electron’s path the intensity then decreases with the square of the distance from the centre of the electron – a sphere-sha= ped field surrounding the electron perfectly.

This field= or EDF represents only part of the kinetic energy of the electron. The remaini= ng kinetic energy is generated by the electron as simple kinetic energy and is= due directly to its matter wave. In another way it is the electron’s mechanical kinetic energy.

Both kinds= of kinetic energy are added. However, it is not possible to add this as a simple sum. Only the modulus is of= use here. Both kinetic energy mechanisms can interchange energy, but both have a determined direction-vector. Both vectors can be equal or different. Each mechanism works within its own medium.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Having introduced the EDF and described it as a number of parallel lines (a simple analogy to be expanded on below) angled toward the direction of the electron movement there is another field. It is the static field of the electron. Consider a still electron. It is possible to represent this electron’s static field as another set of dipole-lines, extending out from the body of the electron li= ke the extended radii of a sphere. Again these static field lines are made up of the same type of lines= as described above for the EDF. The electromotive force represented by them wi= ll be pointing in the opposite direction to the electron. The centre of all li= nes is of course the centre of the electron. A good analogy would be a charged polystyrene ball with hair attached all round it and then electrostatically charged. The Effect of this is having the entire hair stand on end and exist perpendicular to the ball at = the point of attachment.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Given we n= ow have a structure in place and it is made up of lines let us extend this by replacing the lines with ‘bars’ of a determined diameter. Again there is no change with rega= rd to the positioning of the bars and they will still be observed as rising from = the surface of a sphere (like the charged polystyrene ball mentioned above). The diameter of the sphere is 0.000014 Ä. There is a finite number of bars= rising out of the sphere. As the bars extend out at particular radius the bars actually diverge becoming two bars where there was previous one. This splitting occurs at each point the radius is multip= lied by 1.41… (Square-root of 2) This duplication of the bar – becoming two parallel and adjace= nt bars – results in each one of the extensions having half the intensit= y of the previous single extension. This ‘propagation’ of bars resul= ts in space being very compactly filled around the sphere. The idea of space being compactly = filled will be developed over the next few chapters.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> When obser= ving this model of a still electron the bars extending out of the sphere extend vertically from the surface like ‘bristled hair’. However when the electron starts t= o move an EDF comes into existence and as identified in the last chapter the EDF is made up of parallel dipole vectors directed towards the direction of moveme= nt of the electron. The bars or dipole–vectors rising out of the sphere are identical in structure but different in direction and strength. So there are two dipole vectors – one being the EDF and the ot= her being the static ‘hairs’ of the sphere. By vectorial addition, adding thes= e two like types, a local dipole vector can be identified. The resulting structure if viewed = with the normal eye would have its ‘hairs’ once straight and bristled bending forward toward the direction of movement. Note here that the hairs are bendi= ng ‘forward’ and not being swept back as you would expect if this = were a ball with hair sitting in a wind tunnel.= This is directly due to the addition of the EDF dipole vector and the ‘electron hair’ to produce an additive component representing a structure of swept forward hairs as depicted in diagram 2.1.

DIAGRAM 2.1

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> So, at the= front of the moving electron the bars make a dense sheaf generating an intense fi= eld, and at the back they become sparse. Any electron finding itself within this dense field is impelled to move in the same direction as the electron generating the field. At the rear of the moving electron, the sparse field = (a decreased static field) has the effect of exerting a weaker repelling effec= t. Integrating both effects, the general tendency is to move all electrons in = the surrounding zone (within the influence of the electron’s field) in the same direction as the movement of the original electron.<= /p>

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Again obse= rve diagram 2.1, ‘a’ shows a still electron; ‘b’ shows = the EDF and ‘c’ is the sum of both effects. Again study the ‘= hair bending’: it is the result of vectorally adding both effects.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> With the d= uel effect of influence both from the moving electron and the still electron a tendency will always exist for all electrons within the influence of a comb= ined field to start to all move at the same velocity.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Now,= let us examine the concept of inertia. Accelerating an electron with regard to = the surrounding medium, it generates a matter-wave and its mass must increase. = This of course is known as the electron’s Mechanical Kinetic Energy (MKE).=

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> In additio= n to the electron’s MKE it also possesses Electrical Kinetic Energy (EKE) = due to the EDF. The energy of the EDF is

<= o:p>

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> E=3D= k.q.d² where

<= o:p>

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> k is a con= stant,

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> q is the c= harge of the moving particle and

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> d is the integral intensity of the field.

<= o:p>

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Observe th= at d can be replaced by v (velocity), so the speed is directly proportional to t= he field-density.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Those who = worked with power-electric-conduction know that two parallel wires situated close together and conducting current in the same direction (first case) will hav= e a strong attraction between them. If in one of the wires the direction of cur= rent is inverted (second case, currents of opposed directions), they repel each other.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Now consid= er the electrons flowing in the wire. Further, visualize the electrons as they have been depicted above wi= th the bars jutting out from the central core. The moving electron will have both= an EDF and bars jutting out that start to move forward of the sphere (dependin= g on the strength of the EDF). In the first case, the bars of the EDF have the s= ame dipole orientation because the electrons in both wires will be moving in the same direction. Again each moving electron has an EDF with its bars directed parallel to the direction of movement.&nbs= p; Take note, as this is the precursor for what is about to follow. In = the second case with the electrons travelling in opposed directions the bars wi= ll have dipoles with ends juxtapositioned to each other. So, bars of the same orientation attract amongst themselves and in a perpendicular sense, while those of opposed orientation repel each other. This is borne out by the fact that= the wires with current flowing in the same direction attract and current flowin= g in he opposite direction repel. = At the electron level it’s a function of the direction of the respective EDFs with regard to the electrons in each of the parallel wires and in fact it is the attraction of like directed dipoles that cause the wire to attract. This is a very important point and= sets up for the discussion below.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Lets exami= ne the idea of parallel dipole bars and in particular the idea of attraction and repulsion. As identified above if two (or more) dipole bars of the same orientation are brought close together parallel they attract one another. T= he prerequisites are that the bars must be parallel and the dipole orientation must be the same polarity and also in the same direction. Once these prerequisites have been set then the resulting structure can be identified = as a sheaf or polar sheaf.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Returning = once again to the electron structure consider again the bristled hairs that exte= nd out from the surface of the inner sphere of the electron. These bristled ha= irs must by nature create gaps as the size or thickness of the hairs doesn̵= 7;t change with distance. At a ce= rtain point the gaps are filled with another bar to keep space tightly compacted. It has been assume= d that this splitting of bars must occur at a predetermined point out from the inn= er sphere of the electron. This distance by theory has been determined at 1.41… times the radius of t= he sphere of the electron. Bars duplicate at this point and at multiples of this number out from the sphere resulting in a halving of the dipole intensity of the unities in the two replacing bars. Why 1.41̷= 0;? There is a tendency for lateral proliferating of bars. Due to this, the fie= ld decreases with the square of the distance to the electron. The packing of s= pace and the field intensity are compatible with the behaviour of the electron – this idea of bars will be examined with more detail a little later on.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Now a typi= cal polar sheaf of an electron’s extension must have an end – (Its ‘hair’). Polar sheaves generated by currents are usually polar rings. Note that polar ring sheaves have a source from where they diverge a= nd duplication every time is possible however in regard to the electron’s hair duplication divides the polar sheaf’s intensity by 2 and energy = by 4. The end is where it reaches a theoretical digital minimum. That minimum = is the minimum step between two values of intensity (of dipole field). As intensity variation cannot be analog, there are defined digital steps and t= here must be a defined minimum value as a unit. Given this the size of an electron’s static “field” has a boundary. Such polar shea= ves have effectively an end.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Given the structure of the electron it can be assumed that the positron has exactly t= he same structure, but with the polarities inverted. The Electron’s bars have the negative ends facing outwards. In contrast the Positron’s ba= rs have the positive ends facing outwards. When an electron and a positron come close to one another, bars of both particles face each other with ends havi= ng opposed poles. The result is that they are attracted to each other. The bar= s of the electron and positron interlace generating two pairs of adjacent bars w= ith all with the same dipole-orientation. So, first there is a frontal attracti= on and after interlacing there is a lateral attraction. As they get closer the hair-structure becomes broken to become a solitary beam that, after a short time, becomes a photon (this process will be discussed later).

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Now, let us build a new structure. Taking two bars of the same dipole-orientation and attaching them, they will continue being bars, without melting together. The internal structure of a bar must explain its behaviour. To generate a dipole two opposed charges must exist at a determined distance. A support for those charges must also exist to hold them apart. In essence each dipole-unit must have a ‘shell’ that avoids successive units melting together as one. Inside the shell, both charges are separated generating the dipole fie= ld. Each unit is a link of a dipole-chain. Consecutive links are bonded by char= ges of opposed poles. So negative attaches to positive creating a linked dipole chain. Now if two bars or dip= ole chains, charges oriented in the same direction, sit next to each other they will attract laterally. The two bars start to move on each other and this movement results in opposite charges being in closer proximity to the each other rather than the like charges. The direct result is a sliding of bars = in opposite directions against each other much like the top and bottom of caterpillar tracks while the caterpillar is moving. A pictorial representation of this can be seen in diagram 2.2 left side. Another way of describing this is = as two parallel adjacent bars of the same dipole orientation moving in ‘oppo= sed senses’, sliding one on the other.

DIAGRAM 2.2

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Now,= let us define some rules relating to these dipole-chain bars.=

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> The bar mo= ving in the direction of its negative end is defined as the ‘negative bar’ – refer diagram 2.2 (a). Therefore with the positive end in front will be called the ‘positive bar’ as defined in diagram 2= .2 (b).

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Two adjace= nt bars moving in an “opposed sense” will attract moving them toge= ther laterally. See diagram 2.2, bar (a) and bar (b) and note they have joined together laterally.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> The two ba= rs after being attracted together and moving in an opposed sense can be define= d as a polar sheaf. Two adjacent bars in continuous opposed parallel movement. The fundamental characteristic of this structure is the OPPOSED F= LOW of its units. The bars have ends. One unit of a bar arrives at the end and enters the adjacent bar reversing its movement 180 degrees. In other words = it moves into the end of the next bar without changing its dipole orientation. Again examine the left part of diagram 2.2 and in particular the little ver= tical arrows at the end of the sheaf. Both bars of the sheaf make a closed circui= t of moving units. So, the sheaf is like an individual entity in space. It can be still and stable (at least, for a very short time). Later, the breeding tendency generates more sheaves laterally, sharing and distributing its ene= rgy to go on to form other structures. This phenomenon happens at the speed of light. Among other things it is the basis for the formation of a photon, as will be seen later.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Sheaves of= the same dipole-orientation experience an attraction between each other. Sheave= s of opposed dipole-orientation experience repulsion between each other. See dia= gram 2.2. ‘a’ and ‘b’ have an attraction between each ot= her; ‘a’ and ‘c’, ‘b’ and ‘c’ (‘ab’ and ‘c’) have a repulsion between each other.=

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Two polar sheaves (two bars attached and aligned parallel) facing each other on the s= ame straight line experience an attraction between them provided they have the = same dipole orientation since they face each other with ends of opposed poles. T= hey will then attach and make a ‘sheaf of sheaves’ again experienci= ng an attracting between them but on a sheaf scale as opposed to two bars R= 11; see diagram 2.2 the right side. It is a perpendicular section of a polar sh= eaf. Each circle represents a single bar. Point means an “approaching̶= 1; bar and x means a “departing” bar. Observe that a bar is only touching another of opposed movement. Two bars of the same dipole-orientati= on repel each other if still. Attraction occurs only due to the opposed flow. = So, within a polar sheaf bars that repel amongst themselves are repelled far aw= ay, and the sheaf of sheaves is actually a very stable structure due to the ong= oing attraction.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Units of a= sheaf can have small variations of intensity depending on the EDF that generates = it. The ‘sheaf of sheaves’ could also be named a polar sheave fi= eld (PSF).

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Do note th= at all the described rules above are still empirical (at the moment).

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Now, let us examine the electron again. The ‘hair’ can now be considered as individual polar sheaves with opposed flow instead of single bars. Dipole-orientation is with negative ends facing outwards (it will be positi= ve dipole orientation out if part of a positron). We continue to retain the id= ea of a model of lateral breeding, that is to say, doubling of bars at every radial increment of 1.41…. Again this model assumes that space is fil= led compactly with sheaves that attract among each other laterally, building a = very stable body that surrounds the electron: representing the static field, if = it is possible to call it a ‘field’. Its range is not infinite, bu= t it does explain the behaviour of the electron.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> The descri= bed model suggests elemental particles that make up the structure of space.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> If two ele= ctrons approach each other the hairs of each repel and bend away from each other – see diagram 2.3. The equidistant plane to both electrons also represents the boundary between the respective electron hairs. Far away from the central sp= here of each electron the hairs or polar sheaves bend to an extent that they are parallel to each other. Now as discussed above polar sheaves with like directed dipole orientation and flow will attract. There is an attraction force however close to the electrons t= he forces repelling each other are much stronger because the density of the PSF increases with the square of the inverse of the distance. The repulsion of = the sheaves closer to each respective electron overwhelms the attraction of the sheaves further out.

DIAGRAM 2.3

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> As both electrons approach each other they absorb potential energy because both hai= rs, superimposed, means the existence of four times more energy than for just o= ne. It is because the energy of a field is proportional to the square of its density. So, the static field is double but the internal energy rises to fo= ur times that of a single electron’s field.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> In the sim= plest terms unities exist compactly throughout space. The electron can be considered as = just a denser zone in space that containing energy proportional to the square of t= he density. However, the static field is the energy store of a pair (electron = and positron). Two electrons that exist very close to each other have double th= e value of just one electron as the total sum of internal energy however if release= d, instead of becoming a photon of more than 1 MEV two electrons go away in opposite directions each of them possessing a kinetic energy of 511 KEV.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Summarizin= g, the static field of two electrons in close proximity has more energy than the s= um of two single electrons existing far away from each other. The extra energy over and above that that represents the single electron represents the potential energy of the proximity of the two electrons.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Two close electrons could also be viewed as a single electron with a double static fi= eld.=

DIAGRAM 2.4

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> With an el= ectron approaching a positron both are eliminated and a photon is born. This is already known however it s= hould be viewed as a representation of changing forms of energy within an area of unities. In fact the sheaves further away repel each other, but the closer sheaves attract with a much higher strength. Examine diagram 2.4. It shows the shape of the hair for the electron and positron in close proximity. Observe that the polar sheaves of both particles interlace between each other in the middle to form a PSF. Th= is later becomes the photon with a lateral push and it starts perpendicular to= the path of both particles. (Again refer to rule 4 and 5 above) The dipole-axis= of the PSF becomes the polarization-axis of the photon. Note this as it repres= ents the focus of the next chapter.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Recall ear= lier in this chapter that the EDF added to the hairs and the resulting localised vector was that of hairs bending forward.&= nbsp; Now with the more detailed analysis of the polar sheaf and the knowl= edge that the EDF was a field of polar sheaves, the hairs where also polar sheav= es its now possible to look at the electron with increased detail. In particular also recall that all= space is made up of unities and electrons behave as an energy distortion within t= his ‘medium’. Hairs b= end forward because of the integration between both the EDF and bristled hairs = or polar sheaves of the electron. A large number of electrons (a current insid= e a wire) seen from afar, each individual electron generates a PSF of parallel = bars parallel to the current. The bristled-hair-shape exists only close to each electron. Again the hair of a fast electron is like a broom with the handle backwards. It is the extreme case of diagram 2.1, c.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Lets expan= d this to a PSF surrounding two parallel wires with the current flowing in the same direction melting together (only the fields, not the bars) because by definition above the sheaves have an attraction laterally between each othe= r. The intensity of the field decreases with the square of the distance from t= he wire.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> In this ca= se the dipoles of the PSF are oriented with negative ends towards the electronic current.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> This EDF i= s one of the inertia mechanisms of the electron. To create an EDF energy must push the electrons, providing them with energy. Braking the electron, the EDF pu= shes the electron ahead, releasing energy. Again the EDF of the electron is in f= act a PSF.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> The other inertia mechanism as mentioned in the first chapter is the matter-wave. The moving electron generates a matter-wave as any particle does without electr= ic polarity. Since the electron has an electrical polarity the EDF is added to this to represent the total energy.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Following = is the most important part of this model: the interaction between both inertia mechanisms. The EDF is the part of a PSF that interacts with the electron, working as its inertia mechanism. Being an inertia mechanism it works to maintain the status quo of the electron’s velocity resiting any change either faster or slower or vector–ally. Moreover, a PSF is generated by an electron (or by any charged particle for that matter) being first the EDF of the particle and later, merging the EDF of many moving particles together to become a much larger PSF.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> If a PSF is applied to a still electron inside a wire the electron is pushed in the direction of the negative ends of the dipoles of the PSF. The electron is accelerated up to reach a speed that would generate the same PSF. This is the electrical inertia mec= hanism at work. However as the electron is accelerated, it creates a matter-wave as its mechanical inertia. In this way the electron removes energy from the PSF transforming the energy into a matter-wave and kinetic extra-mass.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> At the beg= inning of this scenario of a still electron moved to speed there is no conflict because both mechanisms have the velocity vector oriented parallel and both have equal modulus. The hair of the electron will have a shape as if it were one of the electrons that generated the PSF. But the wire has resistance. T= he electron is braked by the atoms of the wire to the point where it stops and transfers all its kinetic energy into the thermal agitation of the atoms. In other words, the electron is accelerated inside a PSF and it must in respon= se create an EDF against the existing PSF. (Notice here the difference between= the electron’s EDF and the surrounding PSF.) The shape of the electron’s hair acts as if another electron is near although instead = of two electrons there is only one. The other is simulated by the surrounding = PSF. Now imagine in diagram 2.3 replacing one of the electrons by the distorted = bars of the proposed surrounding PSF. specifically, due to the counter-accelerat= ion the electron experiences inside a PSF the electron sees the PSF as another ‘virtual’ electron with an opposed speed. The reason for this is because the PSF is very similar to the EDF generated by an electron moving = in the opposite direction. So, the electron ‘owns’ extra kinetic energy that is opposed to the PSF. We can say that the electron has a counter-speed against the PSF, however it is still regarding the surroundin= g atoms. We can also say that the PSF possesses a speed with regard to the atoms: ba= rs operating with their positive ends moving in one direction and bars lateral= ly attracted with their negative ends moving in the opposed direction. Moreove= r, we can say this is ‘polarized space flowing’. Positive space fl= ows in one direction and negative space flows in the opposed direction. The sum= of both movements of bars results in null space movement regarding atoms and no matter-wave is generated by atoms and bars.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> So, the el= ectron has two different kinds of speeds:

1. &= nbsp; Against neutral space (the matter-wave, mechanical kinetic energy).

2. &= nbsp; Against the PSF, it is the electric kinetic energy due to the opposed speed inside = the PSF.

The next step is to vary the= intensity of the PSF. If the PSF is increased the electron is pushed again in the same direction as it was before, heating the wire again and increasing its speed energy against the PSF.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Decreasing= the PSF, the counter-speed of the electron does not decrease and the difference= is converted into mechanical speed however in the opposite direction. That is = why decreasing the PSF electrons accelerate in the opposite direction.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> The previo= us two intensity changes assume that the PSF is stationary however it can move as = well either by moving the PSF itself or moving the wire inside the PSF. Now moving the wire inside a const= ant PSF electrons are moved with regard to the PSF and electromotive forces are subsequently generated. We must not forget that a PSF is composed by two opposite flowing bar-sheaves, both equal and with a null resultant, and suc= h a ‘body’ can have (or not) an individual speed regarding the environment as mentioned above. The PSF generated by a coil with a current = is still with regard to the coil. When moving the coil the PSF continues to be stationary with regard to the coil but it is moving (with the coil) with re= gard to surrounding objects. Now, if the wire is moved inside a PSF (or the PSF generator is moved with regard to the wire), electrons of the wire start to move and reach their velocity equilibrium at the speed of light with the re= sult that some voltage is generated.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Consider a= s an example electrons inside an electron beam (cathode-ray-tubes). These electrons experience no counter-EDF but possess a high mechanical speed. On the contrary, electrons within a wire inside an intense PSF experience a strong counter-EDF but null mechanical speed. This example illustrates the individuality of both inertia mechanisms. The sum of these two kinds of kinetic energies represents the t= otal kinetic energy of a charged particle.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Another ex= ample is a coil of circular loops. = The flow of current generates circular and concentric bars. They in fact are po= lar sheaves. So, around the coil there is a circular and concentric PSF. As the bars of the PSF attract each other laterally, we can imagine a virtual force ‘vector space’ and call it a ‘magnetic field’. I re= peat it is a force field generated by lateral attraction amongst bars generated = by the current in the wire. Ther= e is no parallel structure along a magnetic line, but the virtual field becomes a real one if we consider the magnetic forces. Well, forces are real, but the field continues to be virtual. While the PSF is a real structure, made of ‘space-units’ with dipoles.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> So, instea= d of a ‘magnetic field’, we instead say a ‘polar sheaf-fieldR= 17; calling it simply the PSF. Of course, the attractive resultants are perpendicular between each of them, with the concept of vector multiplicati= on.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Subsequent= ly, between two coils there are no electromagnetic interactions, but electro-dynamic ones.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Armed with= this new focus, examining PSF interactions, its possible that all electromagnetic phenomenons can be explained. With this it’s very interesting to note that not all phenomenons can be explained by the current entrenched electromagnetic theory. Please, keep reading. As will be seen later, the PSF model hits this current electromagnetic theory at its heart with a number of mortal blows.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> First we consider the case of two magnets.

DIAGRAM 2.5

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> In Diagram= 2.5 two magnets are represented. They are cylindrical bars, magnetized parallel= to their axis. Both magnets are placed parallel a little distance apart and in such a way that the poles are juxta positioned – north aligned with south.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> At an equal distance between both, there will be a plane parallel to their axes. This plane intersects the midline between the two magnetic cylindrical bars.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> On this pl= ane we place a wire such that it sits at the geometric centre of the system and on= the plane just described. In the diagram (W) represents this wire.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Part (b) o= f the diagram is a view sectioned between the two points, c-c, in part (a) of the diagram. This is another view of the plane containing the wire.<= /span>

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Both magne= ts have the same dimension and the same intensity of permanent magnetism. In p= art (a) the magnetic lines are represented. The wire is in an area where the magnetic field is annulled.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Now suppos= ed the wire is thick - half of its section will be in one magnetic field while the other half will be in the opposite field.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> If we were= to move both magnets away (or alternatively bring the magnets together) in a symmetrical fashion then the two magnetic fields of both halves should gene= rate opposed electric currents, in the wire. In other words there shouldn’= t be any electromotive force in the wire.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> However ne= ither the wire nor the magnets studied physics here on Earth and consequently are= not a party to this idea.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Current ph= ysics theory describes what should happen - it doesn’t necessary mean that it does happen! In fact when the two magnets are m= oved an electromotive force is generated. The magnets obviously failed to read physics of the 20th century.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> It should therefore be decreed that the two magnets and the wire are heretics and be excommunicated from physics! (Actually I believe its the two magnets and the wire that excommunicated the physics of the 20-th century!)

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Obviously our not= ion of current physics has no impact on what the magnets and wire do. They will do what they do without = a care to what us humans believe.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> It’s interesting that while they fail to obey our current physics laws they still work for mankind on many former and current engineering projects.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> At this po= int I would like to say I don’t believe that the PSF model is perfect (what is?), however it does explain this phenomena and in trivial form – something the current theories are unable to do convincingly.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Part= (b) of Diagram 2.5 represents the same two magnets as viewed from above - toward their ends. They are magnetized and accordingly around them will be polar s= heaves as indicated. Both magnets have their respective North/South running in the opposite direction to the other. Accordingly, because of this opposite direction and since polar sheaves only run in a single direction around a magnet, at the point where the wire exists between both magnets only one si= ngle sheave direction will be experienced. The left-hand magnet generates dipoles with the negative ends running clockwise while the other being turned 180 degrees will have its positive e= nds running counter-clockwise.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> In the pla= ne that contains the wire, the dipoles will all be oriented in the same direct= ion. In such a field of polar sheaves, if the intensity varies (the magnets are moved), the electrons will be pushed parallel to the wire and therefore appearance of an electromotive force can be observed.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> I repeat, = if somebody has a better explanation, please, provide me with a copy – I= do only seek the best answer here.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> It’s= easy to notice that both magnets have an attraction to each other according to b= oth the following theories.

1. &= nbsp; Due to the magnetic field, and

2. &= nbsp; Because the polar sheaves are parallel and oriented in the same orientation.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> I briefly describe the action of permanent magnets in the chapter ELECTRON.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> For the mo= ment however, I will consider that the magnets are equivalent to coils containin= g a current in that the same magnetic field is generated. The current generates polar sheave= s in concentric circles around the wire creating polar rings and a result that p= erfectly mimics a magnet exists – the results can be interchangeable. Let us examine the concept of magn= etic field briefly.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> A magnetic= field is always perpendicular to the polar sheaves because it is the attracting f= orce among polar sheaves. It is a virtual field because there is no real structu= re parallel to the magnetic field. The only real ‘body’ here is the body of polar sheaves. Inside a magnet, atoms are structured in such a way that electrons actually bounce n= ot only within an atom, but also those electrons that are emitted are captured= by neighbouring atoms. In this w= ay, a few electrons can have a circular path across many atoms (a circle that is = much bigger than the single atom). The electrons generate polar rings parallel to their path and each ring generates more parallel rings around itself. So, p= olar rings extend and a polar ring field is generated. The nearer the rings are = to the electrons, the denser they are. If the axis of the rings is parallel to= the axis of the magnet, we would then have a ‘standard magnet’. We can imagine that the magnet is a finger with many rings, one upon the other (some strange fashion perhaps!).= The attraction (or repulsion) forces are due to these rings.<= /p>

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Consider t= he electrons running along their own ring-paths, its possible to say they are running inside a virtual coil. At this point we can also say a coil is a ‘virtual magnet’.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Yes,= a magnetic field (the direct resultant of a sheaf-field) is the culmination of all the moving electrons.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Summarizin= g this very simply: a coil simulates a magnet and a magnet simulates a coil.<= /o:p>

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> The perman= ent magnet exists due to the atomic structure that allows the circular paths of those electrons moving between atoms to be stable.

DIAGRAM 2.6

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Cons= ider the coil in diagram 2.6. The thick circle represents the wire. The other concentric circles represent the polar sheaves generated by an electronic current travelling in the wire. These are special polar sheaves because ins= tead of having an end, each bar is in fact a ring. As a result, they are concent= ric rings of coupled dipole-bars, explicitly, they are called ‘polar rings’. The vertical arrow with + and – represents the dipole orientation of the rings at the left side. Electrons move inside the wire c= lockwise. Inside and outside of the wire-loop there are rings that make up the ‘polar ring field’ (This can be summarised as the PRF instead o= f a Polar Sheaf Field, however for the moment we shall continue to refer to it = as a PSF). Observe that the intensity is at maximum close to the wire and decrea= ses the further one moves away from the wire. This intensity is null at the cen= tre and decreases with the square when moving out of the wire-loop. This is all referred to according to the plain that contains the wire. If there are many loops, each loop has its own horizontal (in the diagram) plane; in fact pla= nes are parallel and are piled up like a pile of flat pancakes in line with eac= h of the coils. Polar rings continue being concentric and parallel. They attract laterally amongst themselves in a perpendicular sense and so magnetic lines= are born.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> If the coi= l is situated inside a vacuum chamber and an electron moves on one of the mentio= ned flat planes (for example see ‘e1’ in diagram 2.6) with a speed towards the centre ‘vm1’, that electron has formed a counter-EDF against the direction of the PSF of the coil ‘ve1’. Note that the EDF generated is opp= osite to the dipole orientation at that point in the PSF. Here the PSF is a ring equidistant= to the coil at all points on the plane. It results in an ‘electrical speed’ against the polar rings. If this electrical spe= ed did not exist then the electron would move in a circular path clockwise – that is in the direction of the ‘+’ end as shown on the diagram. The fact that the electron moves on a radius (without a tangential componen= t) means that something stops the electron from being dragged along by the pol= ar rings. This ‘something’ is the counter-EDF formed by the electr= on in response to the existence of the PSF and the fact that it is moving. As the electron moves closer to the centre, the PSF diminishes (however not the EDF – this stays constant) and ‘ve1’ subsequently bends the trajectory of the electron as ‘r1’.

When the electron enters int= o the PSF – arriving at the wire with a perpendicular speed, perhaps it was emitted from a cathode ray tube – the fact of moving towards the cent= re without a parallel component to the wire, means that it must have a counter-speed against the PSF – its own EDF.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> The EDF is the body gen= erated by the electron against the PSF-environment. Electrons generate EDF if they enter into a PSF. The electron “e1” already has its EDF develop= ed due to previous forces that have determined its position and speed. If that electron is moving free inside the coil, it is not accelerated by any other external effect. So, its EDF does not change and trajectory bends. If somet= hing forces it to continue moving in a straight line towards the centre, then its EDF changes.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Summarizin= g: the EDF belongs to the electron, it is part of its body. The PSF is an external field with regard to the electron. They interact between each other.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> The EDF was created by the existence of the PSF and the electrons initial moment now ta= kes over. The effect of the PSF is annulled at the centre, but only on a point. Crossing the centre, the effect appears again. The dipole orientation of rings is inverted and instead of decreasing, field intensity now is increasing. So the electron experiences = the same path bending. When the electron reaches the same radius but on the oth= er side it is again travelling in the same direction as it was at point ‘e1’.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> If the ele= ctron is moving parallel to the rings ‘e2’, the counter-EDF is ‘ve2’. The electron seeks to enter into a PSF of increasing intensity. The polar rings push the electron perpendicular to the radius of= the coil or put another way push the electron parallel to the polar rings in the direction of the negative dipole end. The electron e2 seeks to move on a straight line (vm2). Moving clockwise, the push-force-vector rotates towards the centre and electron bends its path according to r2. So, e2 is accelerat= ed towards the centre and its mechanical speed vector (vm2) is subsequently be= nt towards the centre. If vm2 is counter clockwise, again electron seeks to move on a straight line towards = the wire, but this time rings rotated the force vector towards the wire. So, the electron’s path is bended towards the wire.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Combining = all the described cases we have the behaviour of an electron moving inside a parallel PSF, that is to say, inside a perpendicular magnetic field.

DIAGRAM 2.8

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Now, obser= ve diagram 2.8. Left side represents 4 sets of ‘two-magnets’ in th= e same formation as the two magnets were as depicted in diagram 2.5. In this case though there are 4 se= ts arranged in a circle. As in diagram 2.5 each ‘couple’ is set of opposed magnets each with equal magnetic intensity. The outcome of this is that if the= y were to be simultaneously moved toward the centre or alternatively away from the centre the same electromotive force will appear as it was in the wire ‘w’. The polarity of each magnet is represented by ‘sR= 17; (south) and ‘n’ (north). As magnets are ‘virtual coils= 217; or coils are ‘virtual magnets’, it is possible to replace magne= ts by coils and join them so as to obtain the toroidal coil (t) at the right s= ide of diagram 2.8. Now, the problem of ‘two magnets’ now manifests itself in the toroidal coil. The situation as experienced by twentieth cent= ury electromagnetic theory now becomes much worse. According to that theory, there is= NO MAGNETIC FIELD out of a toroidal coil. Nevertheless, the secondary coil ‘sec’ still works ignoring this currently accepted theory. (So happens to a wire in the axis of the coil.) If between ‘t’ and ‘sec’ there is no magnetic medium to transfer electromotive for= ces why does it work? Of course, it is possible to say that a magnetic flow (generated by ‘t’) is also inside ‘sec’. But there = is an unexplainable break in the field-continuity.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> The polar-ring-field model explains it. In a simple wire flowing current within, parallel polar sheaves are attracted to the wire generating the maximum field-intensity on its surface. Bending the wire, that field must increase = on the side of bending. Bending more up to have a loop, there will be a higher polar ring field intensity inside the loop. Although at the center the field will be null, out of the loop it will be lower. It is possible to imagine t= he average density center as a loop of less diameter than (and inside) the wire loop. So all the external polar rings are absorbed inside the wire loop finishing in a null external field. If we have a long coil, at its ends pol= ar rings escape and generate an external field with a minimum value at the mid= dle of the coil’s length. Now, bending the coil so as to obtain a toroidal one (right side of diagram 2.8), all the external field is absorbed into the internal ring-shaped volume of the coil.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> If t= he current increases new polar sheaves will appear out of the coil. New polar rings expand at the speed of light; absorbing of polar rings also happens at the speed of light. According to the coupling factor between the toroidal c= oil and a secondary coil (sec) this last one absorbs its energy and an electromotive force appears in “sec”. If the current in the pri= mary coil decreases, the excess of polar rings&= nbsp; escapes. Again, the electromotive force appears, but of opposed sens= e.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Summarizin= g: if a continuous current is flowing in the toroidal coil there is no external p= olar rings but any variation of current generates external field. That is why a toroidal coil generates no magnetic field around but it can work as a transformer and can push charged particles along its axis by varying its current.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Remember t= he “two-magnets-problem”: varying the magnetic field an electromot= ive force appears inside the wire.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Having des= cribed the behavior of a toroidal coil, it is possible to understand the behavior = of a transformer (or that of any inductive component with ferromagnetic nucleus)= .

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> It is poss= ible to consider a transformer as a toroidal coil because the iron nucleus works= as a toroidal coil. (Remember that a magnet is a virtual coil with current flo= wing within and a coil is a virtual magnet). Let us take a transformer, for our example, of two thousand watts, 220 volts on primary and any practical voltage-value on secondary. Measuring the inductance of primary by resonance with 39 uF in parallel at 50 Hz, we have 0.26 Hy. The inductive impedance a= t 50 Hz is 81 ohm. Measuring the resistance of primary (that of the wire) it is = of 1 ohm.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Let us con= nect the primary to a source of 220 volt of alternated tension of 50 Hz. Previou= sly we connect an amp-meter in series to measure the current in primary. At the switching moment, the amp-meter will indicate current in the order of 2 or 3 amps. Later the current will fall to only a 250 to 300 milliamps that, multiplied by the primary voltage and the phase factor, is the equivalent of lost power due to Foucault-effect. The equivalent circuit is a resistance o= f 1 ohm in series with an inductance of 0.26 Hy. If the frequency is 50 Hz, the impedance is 81 ohms. In series with 1 ohm, the phase rotation is very smal= l. Applying 220 volts of alternated tension, the current must be of 2.7 amps at the first moment and later it falls to a 250 milliamps. It means that the s= ame transformer is generating a counter-voltage against the source. If not, the initial current would flow through it.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Now, the question that arises is the next: what magnetic field variation is inside t= he iron nucleus to generate that counter voltage? It is the same value that generates a current that, at its time, is generated by the same voltage. Th= at happens at the beginning. But later there is no current variation in the primary coil; moreover, there is not any current to generate such a magnetic field. Then without current why the counter voltage exists?

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Another pr= oblem. As even students know, the counter-voltage is proportional to the magnetic field variation, so phase of voltage and current (What current?) are in 90 degrees. When the counter-voltage is maximum, the magnetic field variation = is maximum just having reached zero. Then the magnetic field continues varying towards the opposed polarity with the same ratio. We must keep in mind that= the mentioned magnetic field is NOT generated by any current in the transformer’s primary coil. Those 250 milliamps flow due to an equiva= lent secondary load. To generate a field capable of creating the counter-voltage= , we should need 2.7 amps. Once reached zero value, it grows towards the opposed sense reaching the maximum value again. Like if there were an inertia wheel inside the nucleus. Well, currently there is one. It is the basis of the self-induction.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Summarizin= g, at the switching-on moment yes there is a current of 2.7 amps, so as to genera= te the energy for that internal field. But later that energy is “spinning” inside the nucleus till the switching-off moment. Th= en the primary coil generates a high voltage pulse like any inductance with flowing-current within.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> According = to the eteronic theory, the electron has two inertia mechanisms. 1) due to the int= ron (the matter-wave); 2) due to the polar-rings (polarized flowing space). On = the other hand, considering the emitted-absorbed electron, the atomic structure= of magnetizable materials allows ring-like electronic movements. One atom emits its electron but the neighbor atom absorbs it so as to create a mono-directional electronic current. Bending the path, ring currents are generated due to an external polar-ring-field (PRF). At its time, those electrons generate theirs own PRF adding it to the external one. So the PRF grows. The multiplying factor is the permeability of the magnetic material.= It is like if the iron were full of small coils to conduct a high current.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> When the external PRF (generated by the primary coil) enters into the iron it lines = up the electron-paths parallel to itself. That is to say, generating rig-shaped circular paths. The stronger is the PRF, the easier is to move electrons. T= hen electrons begin to run along those paths, generating theirs electroids, pus= hed by the external PRF that gives them energy. A strong internal PRF is genera= ted. After having reached the maximum value, the external PRF decreases, so the internal field. The varying (this time decreasing) internal field generates= the counter-voltage. When the field reaches zero, that voltage is maximum. But a zero field means that circular paths are blocked and electrons are pushed against atoms (like against springs) absorbing static potential energy. At a given moment there is no PRF but yes an amount of electrons in energy-wells where they are pushed by a force to go out. Then those electrons escape from theirs wells recovering theirs speed, that is to say, the PRF that opens circular paths again, but in the opposed sense. So an opposed PRF is genera= ted. The PRF-varying continues like a continuous sinusoidal wave and it generates the next semi-cycle of counter voltage.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> The motion= of an electron regarding to its position in rest can be represented by a similar phenomenon: that of two masses joined by a spring. A force represents PRF that seeks = to move it; the spring represents attraction forces to return it to the initial position. If the moving force has a sinusoidal ratio regarding time, both m= asses will move in sinusoidal ratio due to the spring, oscillating.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> The most important thing is that the internal PRF (whose consequence is the magnetic field inside the nucleus), once having reached zero, it regenerates itself<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> WITHOUT any external input. That is why, a= fter the first cycles, in the primary coil does not flow current to generate magnetic field that, at its time, would generate counter voltage. The only current is that corresponding to the secondary load.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> The descri= bed phenomenon is the self-induction of transformers. The behavior is like an oscillator that at the first cycles absorbs energy, but it continues oscillating without more energy supply. The formula is:

<= o:p>

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> = V =3D N.f.Φ. 4.44x10^-8

<= o:p>

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Where=

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> = V =3D counter voltage

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> = N =3D amount of wire-loops of primary

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> = Φ =3D magnetic flux in the nucleus

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> = f =3D frequency <= /o:p>

<= o:p>

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Making V/N =3D f.Φ= ;. 4.44x10^-8, V= /N =3D K It is constant = for a given transformer.

<= o:p>

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> = K / (Φ. 4.44x10^-8) =3D f

<= o:p>

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> In a given transformer the frequency is a function of magnetic flux (Φ). That is = why if we seek to build a resonant circuit using an inductance with magnetizable nucleus (L) in parallel with a capacitor (C), the self-frequency and the LC frequency can have some conflict if they are not equal.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Notice that electromagnetic theories of twentieth century cannot explain what happens to electrons to generate magnetic field inside an iron nucleus. The concept of “bouncing” electron explains it clearly. In a permanent magnet, after having been magnetized, atoms do not need an external PRF to continue holding circular electronic paths. In a transformer it would be a problem, = so not permanent magnetic materials are used. In materials for transformerR= 17;s nucleus circular paths cannot persist without an external PRF.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Don’t forget that a polar-ring-field (PRF) is a real moving of electric elements parallel to the movement of electrons, so we can say they are “electro-dynamic” lines; while a magnetic field is perpendicula= r to the PRF. As lines of a PRF attract among them laterally, a perpendicular fo= rce appears with regard to those lines: it is the magnetic field. Force vectors= are perpendicular to polar lines and magnetic field is perpendicular to electro-dynamic lines of the PRF.

<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> A last tho= ught. Lines of the PRF are a “projection” of the wire-loops in a coil= .

<= o:p>